Hostage diplomacy is a diplomatic tactic used by countries and their governments to gain their national interest by detaining foreign nationals. Hostage-taking heightened the tension between states, where to resolve the conflict hostages are used as the negotiation chip. Many countries practice hostage diplomacy despite the fact that it violates human rights and international law. The following blog will cover the background along with the current practice of hostage diplomacy. 

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What Is Hostage Diplomacy?

“Hostage diplomacy” is the practice of a state detaining a foreign national using its criminal justice system and then using the detainee as a tool to achieve its foreign policy goals. This type of persuasion falls somewhere between illegal abduction and lawful arrests and criminal proceedings. Early phases of hostage diplomacy are similar to those of proper detention such as when the state detains foreign nationals for alleged criminal offenses, particularly espionage. 

The accused person is detained and legally charged. However, the pretense quickly disappears. Hostage diplomacy concludes with the state bargaining for the prisoner’s release via various types of diplomatic or economic incentives. Along the way, the accused changes from a prisoner to a negotiation tool.

Background of Hostage Diplomacy

There is a long history of taking an individual as a way of getting concessions.  However, the roots of hostage diplomacy date back to ancient times. Hostage diplomacy was practiced throughout the Roman Empire’s rule and played a substantial part in their successes. It helped the Romans maintain control over their conquered people.  It helped the Romans to exercise authority over their subjugated people.  Romans did not just use hostage tactics with Barbarian tribes but also utilized hostages in their exchanges with foreign nations. For instance, when Roman territory was invaded by the Parthians in 53 BC, the Roman general Crassus was kidnapped and later executed. This event caused long-lasting trouble between the two empires.

In medieval times, hostage diplomacy was important to the European feudal system. Monarchs frequently used to take hostages from their servants to ensure their devotion and obedience. Hostages were typically servant sons who were kept in the lord’s castle to ensure good behavior. Furthermore, taking hostages during times of conflict and negotiation was also a common practice in the Islamic world. However, hostages were treated with respect and provided proper places to stay. This was according to the Islamic hospitality concept to guests and detainees. In addition to receiving food, clothing, and education, hostages occasionally received honors from their captors. 

One famous example of hostage diplomacy in the Islamic world is the legendary story of Ibn Battuta. He was a traveler from Morocco who was captured by pirates around the beginning of the 14th century. He acquired knowledge of many languages and cultures while imprisoned, subsequently making him one of the most well-known explorers of history. 

Further, in the modern world hostage diplomacy was observed during the times of the Cold War between the US and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union held hostages in Eastern Europe to guarantee their loyalty to the USSR and comply with its policies. Another event is the Iran Hostage Crisis Hostages where US citizens were kept hostage for 444 days which created political tension between both states. Later, this matter was resolved through diplomatic negotiations.

Hostage Diplomacy In the 21st Century

Hostage diplomacy continues to be used in modern global politics, as shown by recent occurrences such as American citizens being taken hostage by North Korea. Using hostages in modern diplomacy reveals the need for communication and negotiation in conflict resolution among political adversaries. Following the evolution of hostage diplomacy from history to the current day offers perspectives on its use in modern political relationships between states and emphasizes the intricate nature of hostage situations.

According to International Law,  the act of holding hostages is considered a war crime. It has its international convention and is strictly prohibited by the Geneva Conventions. Beyond any question, hostage abduction is a terrifying kind of violence that causes significant psychological and physical harm to victims as well as their families. However, hostage diplomacy has been used in modern-day politics. Although it is still controversial,  hostages have been used successfully and unsuccessfully as a diplomatic instrument and to influence international relations. Modern countries are engaged in hostage diplomacy including Russia, Turkey, China, Iran, and North Korea.

1) Russia

Hostage diplomacy’ was a primary aspect of the Soviet Union-US confrontation. The first prisoner exchange took place in 1962 when spies were swapped. It was expanded to encompass political dissidents from 1976 onwards. The biggest exchange involving 27 intelligence officers took place in 1985. Six significant prisoner exchanges occurred during the period of the Cold War. 

Since the end of the Cold War, the biggest prisoner exchange between Russia and the West took place on August 1, 2024. This exchange occurred in Ankara and is a notable event as 24 hostages crossed an increasing ‘east-west’ divide in continental Europe. Belarus and Russia released 16 hostages comprising American, German, and Russian citizens. At the same time, Eight Russian citizens were set free by Germany,  the United States, Poland, Norway, and Slovenia. The charges filed against the detainees ranged widely such as treason, espionage, cybercrime, terrorism, murder, and the smuggling of drugs and weapons. Significantly, the opposing parties had charged one another with making up allegations to justify long sentences in prison. This was viewed as a means to exchange valuable resources of the ruling regimes.  

2) Turkey

Turkish hostage-taking has grown into one of the most significant problems in Ankara’s relationship with its Western partners. The most recent arrest was Deniz Yucel, a German-Turkish journalist who was detained in Turkey in February 2017 on allegations of spreading terrorist propaganda. After his detention, authorities redirected their focus to his reporting of the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), notably an interview he had conducted with PKK leader, Cemil Bayik. After more than a year of free-of-charge imprisonment in Turkey, the majority of which was spent in solitary confinement, he was given bail on February 16.

These hostage politics have been particularly evident in American-Turkish ties. The Turkish government has issued severe demands over the exchange of some Americans detained in Turkish captivity. The case of Andrew Brunson is the most famous. He is a pastor who has spent 20 years in Turkey serving a tiny evangelical congregation in Izmir. In October 2016, Brunson was detained on speculative accusations that he was involved in the coup attempt of 2016. He remains in prison for more than a year. 

A year later, President Erdogan declared that the US should swap “a pastor for a pastor” that is, exchange Brunson for his fierce enemy Fethullah Gulen, a Pennsylvania resident. This shows President Erdogan uses Bruson as a tool or an object for trade or a win-win situation. 

3) China

Hostage diplomacy was used throughout the history of China when during civil unrest, hostages were taken between empires/dynasties. Hostages were used not just in political disputes, but also in business dealings between traders to secure the honesty of another party. Interestingly, in ancient China, hostages were not confined to humans. Animals also played the role of hostages. For example, the Chinese emperor gave a pair of pandas to the Japanese emperor during the Han era (206 BC–220 AD) to offer peace and friendship between dynasties. These pandas, which represented the emperor’s wealth and authority, were valuable hostages.

However, the case which took the world’s attention was the detention of two Michaels by the Chinese government. In December 2018, the daughter of Huawei Technologies’ founder and the chief financial officer of the Chinese telecom Huawei Technologies, Meng Wanzhou was arrested by the Canadian government. Meng was arrested in Vancouver at the instruction of the United States, allegedly for breaching Iran sanctions and committing banking fraud. Soon afterward, the Chinese government imprisoned two Canadian nationals residing in China:  businessman Michael Spavor, and former diplomat Michael Kovrig, popularly called the “two Michaels.”

After nearly three years of standoff, the U.S. Justice Department and Meng agreed on September 25, 2021. Under the terms of the agreements, the United States dismissed its charges against Meng and asked that Canada release her. Shortly after, Canadian Prime Minister, Trudeau also declared that the two Michaels would be returning home a few hours later. Further, the 2020 arrest of Australian news anchor Cheng Lei is also an example of hostage diplomacy.

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4) Iran

Iran is arguably the initiator of hostage diplomacy. In 1979, a group of Iranian students seized the US embassy, detained 52 American diplomats and other people, and kept them hostage for 444 days. The hostages’ final release was influenced by many attempts, including international negotiations and political meddling inside the US government. Since then, hostage diplomacy has been an instrument employed by Iranian regimes to obtain monetary assistance and prisoner swaps from the US and its coalition partners.

For example, Jason Rezaian, the former head of the Washington Post’s Tehran bureau, was among the four Iranian detainees released as part of the 2015 Iran nuclear deal. Iran granted release to two British-Iranian citizens in 2022 following the UK government’s agreement to resolve an economic dispute dating back to the 1970s. 

5) North Korea 

Hostage diplomacy has been widely employed by North Korea as an approach against the US, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, and some other European countries. Travelers or exchange students are frequently taken as hostages and charged with petty crimes or espionage. There have been allegations in recent years that Kim Jong-un’s tyranny has switched from using hostages to gain advantage to using them as human shields to prevent a projected American intervention. A famous example of North Korean hostage diplomacy is the case of Otto Warmbier, who passed away soon after being freed.

How Can Australia Confront ‘Hostage Diplomacy?

Australia, which has been a target in hostage diplomacy, plays an important part in advocating against these violations. Australia was at the forefront in drafting, “The Declaration Against Arbitrary Detention in State-to-State Relations in 2021” to boost international cooperation against the practice of hostage diplomacy. Australia was among the 58 nations that first endorsed the declaration, along with the European Union. Currently, 77 countries are part of this declaration.  

Australia has the international weight to act as deterrence on its own, but it is capable of coming up with concepts that may be modified and expanded in collaboration with the 77 countries that are now the signatories of the Declaration Against Arbitrary Detention. The other practical solution is to inform Australian citizens that the Australian government rejects the notion of visiting countries where they could be arbitrarily arrested and to issue clear cautions to them about the potential risks associated with going to such countries. 

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Conclusion

In conclusion, Hostage diplomacy has been practiced throughout history. To gain political concessions and objectives, monarchs, autocrats, and states use hostage diplomacy. In the modern-day world, the states are actively using hostage diplomacy. The international community condemns such acts of states as this cause psychological and physical torture to the individuals and their families, violating human rights and international law. However, a non-binding declaration has been signed by Canada, Japan, Australia, the US, and the UK to condemn the arbitrary detention of foreign nationals by states. 

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