Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II ruled twice, from 1451 to 1481 and from 1444 to 1446. The Ottomans became a significant force and the Byzantine Empire came to an end when he captured Constantinople in 1453. During his rule, the empire saw tremendous growth, and he promoted a thriving architectural and cultural heritage. Mehmed II was a diplomat, a lover of the arts, and a strategic military leader.

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Who was Sultan Mehmed II?

Mehmed the Conqueror, also known as Sultan Mehmed II, was one of the most recognizable and influential individuals in Ottoman and global history. His reign established the groundwork for one of the most dominant powers of its day and extended Ottoman dominance throughout Europe, thereby marking a turning point not just for the Ottoman Empire but also for world geopolitics.

Early Life of Sultan Mehmed II

Sultan Mehmed II was born at Edirne, the Ottoman Empire’s capital at the time, on March 30, 1432. Sultan Murad II and his concubine Hüma Hatun were the parents of the man. Mehmed’s father exposed him to the intricacies of statecraft and government at a young age in an effort to prepare him for potential positions of leadership. His extensive education was a reflection of the Ottoman court’s insistence on preparing its monarchs for both academic and practical undertakings.

Mehmed was taught the Quran, Islamic law, and several languages. He became an expert in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish and studied Greek and Latin. Mehmed’s father employed respected academics and instructors, including renowned theologian Molla Gürani, to mentor him in his academic pursuits. 

Mehmed became a monarch who could successfully bridge the intellectual and cultural divide between the Islamic and Western cultures because of his varied education.

Mehmed was just 12 years old when his father abdicated in 1444, momentarily putting him on the throne. But the fledgling sultan had to deal with pressing issues right away. Both the court and outside foes saw his youth and ignorance as vulnerabilities. 

Murad II was obliged to retake the throne and assume leadership due to the Crusade of Varna, which was organized by European armies looking to take advantage of the Ottoman power vacuum.

Mehmed’s first reign was influential, even if it was short. He learned the value of military might and the perils of political unrest from this experience, insights that would influence his administration in the future. 

Following the death of Murad II in 1451, Mehmed took the throne once more, this time as an experienced and resolute leader prepared to carry out his goals of extending and solidifying Ottoman authority. 

Conquest of Constantinople and Sultan’s Role

Sultan Mehmed II’s conquest of Constantinople in 1453 was a turning point in world history. The Byzantine Empire came to an end as a result of this military victory, which also cemented the Ottoman Empire’s ascent to prominence and signaled the turn of the medieval to modern era. Mehmed the Conqueror was a key player in this momentous occasion, demonstrating his military prowess, strategic insight, and visionary leadership.

Conquest’s Historical Context

The Byzantine Empire’s capital city of Constantinople has long served as a representation of Christian culture and authority in the East. Because of its position, which allowed it to control access to the Black Sea, the Mediterranean, and both Europe and Asia, it was also strategically significant. 

The city’s enormous Theodosian Walls, constructed in the fifth century, had successfully resisted invasions despite several sieges over many centuries. But by the fifteenth century, the Byzantine Empire had shrunk to nothing more than Constantinople and a few surrounding provinces, leaving the capital exposed.

After taking the Ottoman throne in 1451, Sultan Mehmed II was committed to taking Constantinople. In order to realize his goal of expanding the Ottoman Empire over many continents, he considered the capture of the city as essential. Beyond the tactical benefits, taking Constantinople would solidify Mehmed’s standing as a legendary commander in the Islamic world and throughout history.

Getting Ready for the Siege

Mehmed II made enormous and meticulous preparations for the siege. He realized that it would take extraordinary military might to break the city’s fabled walls. To block off help to Constantinople from the Black Sea, he constructed the castle of Rumeli Hisarı in 1452, just north of the city on the European side of the Bosporus. This was in addition to the Anadoluhisarı stronghold, which was constructed on the Asian side and efficiently managed naval movements into and out of the Bosporus.

Mehmed also ordered the construction of enormous weapons, such as the well-known Basilica cannon, which is 27 feet long and was created by Hungarian engineer Urban. Massive stone balls up to 600 kg in weight could be fired from these cannons, piercing even the strongest defenses. Mehmed gathered an army of 80,000–100,000 troops, including elite Janissaries, and a strong fleet to block the city’s sea routes in addition to his sophisticated weaponry.

The Last Battle and the Takeover

April 6, 1453, was the start of the siege. Mehmed’s army gradually undermined the Byzantine fortifications by barrageing the city walls day and night with their powerful cannons. Additionally, the Ottomans launched a number of frontal attacks that were first repulsed. But moving his ships on land was one of Mehmed’s most brilliant strategies. 

Ships were ordered to be pulled over greased logs by Mehmed in order to get around the strongly fortified chain that was blocking the entrance to the Golden Horn. This allowed the ships to approach the river from an unexpected direction. This action totally severed Constantinople’s supply routes.

Mehmed launched his last attack on May 29, 1453, following 53 days of nonstop combat. The walls were no longer held by the city’s defenders, who were greatly outnumbered and worn out. After the fortifications were breached, Constantinople fell to the Ottomans.

After the city fell, Mehmed renamed it Istanbul and proclaimed it the Ottoman Empire’s new capital. He immediately got to work, bringing the city back to life and making it a hub for Islamic education and culture while maintaining its multicultural populace. A mosque was built in place of the famous Christian church, Hagia Sophia, to represent the city’s change during Ottoman administration.

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How Much Did Istanbul Grow Under Mehmed II? 

Mehmed made repopulating the city one of his top priorities. Desolate, Constantinople had been besieged, and many of its citizens had either left or died. Mehmed sent orders for a large-scale exodus of Christians, Jews, and Muslims from all throughout the empire in order to address this problem. A varied and diversified populace resulted, which reflected the global nature of the empire. In order to promote economic growth, he also urged traders and craftspeople to relocate to Istanbul.

Mehmed II rebuilt the city’s infrastructure with a series of massive architectural projects. He oversaw the building of the famous Topkapi Palace, which served as the empire’s administrative and political hub. Istanbul’s conversion from a Christian basilica to a mosque served as a symbol of the city’s transition to a Muslim metropolis. 

He also founded the Grand Bazaar, which grew to be one of the biggest and most significant commercial centers in the world.

In order to guarantee that the city’s infrastructure could accommodate its expanding population, Mehmed also made investments in the renovation of public buildings, bridges, and aqueducts.

Researchers, artists, and philosophers from Europe and the Islamic world were welcomed to the sultan’s court. By fusing Byzantine, Islamic, and Renaissance elements, this cultural fusion established Istanbul as a hub of learning and creativity and positioned the city as a flourishing center of art, culture, and intelligence.

List of Major Conquests of Sultan Mehmed II

The most important and well-known conquest, Constantinople (1453), brought the Byzantine Empire to an end and made Istanbul the capital of the Ottoman Empire.

Serbia (1454–1459): After taking Smederevo in 1459, Mehmed subjugated Serbia and annexed it to the Ottoman Empire.

Morea (1460): The Byzantine occupation of the Peloponnese (southern Greece) came to an end with the capture of the Despotate of the Morea.

Trebizond (1461): The Ottoman Empire conquered the Empire of Trebizond, the final Byzantine successor state, subjugating all the old Byzantine lands.

Wallachia (1462): Ottoman rule over the region was established as a consequence of campaigns against Vlad III, sometimes known as Vlad the Impaler.

Bosnia (1463): The takeover of Bosnia, which joined the Ottoman Empire after the Bosnian ruler was overthrown.

Albania (1466–1479): Protracted warfare against Skanderbeg’s resistance-minded Albanians resulted in the final Ottoman conquest of the area.

Karamanids (1468): The annexation of the Karamanid kingdom in central Anatolia strengthened Ottoman rule over the region.

Crimea (1475): The Crimean Khanate came under Ottoman suzerainty when Mehmed’s army took control of the major Crimean ports.

Otranto (1480): Although the campaign came to an end with Mehmed’s death in 1481, it was a brief possession of the Italian city as part of his aim to invade Italy.

How do Historians Perceive Sultan Mehmed II?

Historians regard Sultan Mehmed II as one of the most prominent and complicated characters of the 15th century, with his reign being a watershed moment in both Ottoman and world history. His legacy as Mehmed the Conqueror originates from his extraordinary military successes, most notably the fall of Constantinople in 1453. This conquest is seen as a watershed point in history, ending the Byzantine Empire and shifting the balance of power between East and West, bringing the Middle Ages to a close and ushering in the Renaissance and Age of Exploration.

Many historians lauded Mehmed II’s military prowess and strategic insight. His utilization of novel siege technology, such as enormous guns, and ability to react to complicated battlefield situations demonstrate his leadership abilities. 

His military efforts not only increased Ottoman territory but also cemented the empire as a dominant force in Europe, Asia, and the Mediterranean.

Historians consider Mehmed a visionary leader and cultural benefactor in addition to his military achievements. His efforts to reconstruct and repopulate Constantinople turned it into a thriving imperial capital. Mehmed’s religious tolerance policies, which encouraged the immigration of Muslims, Christians, and Jews, were viewed as important to the Ottoman Empire’s diversity and cosmopolitanism.

However, some historians refer to more harsh parts of his tenure. Mehmed was noted for his autocratic leadership, which concentrated authority in the sultanate and dealt ruthlessly with internal criticism. His unrelenting expansionist goals frequently resulted in conflict and bloodshed.

Sultan Mehmed II’ Legacy and Death:

In the last years of his reign, Sultan Mehmed II pursued his imperial aspirations, hoping to extend the Ottoman Empire deeper into Europe and Asia. Despite his advanced age, Mehmed remained committed to military expeditions, including plans to conquer Italy and take Rome, which he saw as a valuable prize. In 1480, his armies temporarily took the southern Italian city of Otranto, but his death ended any future efforts.

Mehmed launched another military expedition in early 1481, but historians disagree on the actual goal, with some supposing that it was aimed at Rhodes or Italy. However, halfway on the trip, Mehmed became critically sick.

Sultan Mehmed II died on May 3, 1481, at the age of 49, in the village of Gebze, just outside Istanbul. The reason for his death has been a source of debate, with some claiming natural causes and others claiming poisoning, possibly staged by court enemies or foreign agents. Regardless of the cause, his death sparked instant stress across the empire.

Mehmed’s death signaled the end of an era in the Ottoman Empire. Although his successor, Bayezid II, acquired a powerful and large kingdom, Mehmed’s death temporarily prevented future Ottoman aspirations to expand into Europe. Sultan Mehmed II left a reputation as a military genius and visionary ruler, transforming the Ottoman Empire into an important player in the medieval era.

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Conclusion

Sultan Mehmed II, sometimes known as Mehmed the Conqueror, was a transformational monarch whose rule altered both the Ottoman Empire and world history. His capture of Constantinople in 1453 signaled the end of the Byzantine Empire and the establishment of Istanbul as the Ottoman capital, representing the empire’s expanding might. Aside from his military achievements, Mehmed was a visionary who renovated the city, sparking a cultural and academic revival. He increased Ottoman territory via smart victories and consolidated control, creating the framework for the empire’s golden period.

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