The Yuan dynasty (1279-1368) was the first foreign-rule dynasty that commanded all of China in Chinese history. It was established by the Mongol nomads who eventually ruled China until 1368. With no experience governing such a big and complex throne, the Yuan emperors failed to exercise their control over more distant possessions. With little prior experience managing such a big and complex kingdom, The Mongols progressively obtained several Chinese cultural and administrative practices. However, growing conflict at the court, corruption, and the devastation of natural disasters all contributed to revolt and, eventually, the collapse of the dynasty. 

History of Yuan Dynasty

The Mongol Empire started in 1206 with the unification of all Mongols under the leadership of Genghis Khan in the wide steppe lands north of China. In 1211, Genghis began advancing on the Jin dynasty in northern China and finally captured the Jin capital of Yanjing (present-day Beijing). For the next six decades, the Mongols increased their control over northern China before they turned to southern China, which they seized in 1279 with the overthrow of the Nan (Southern) Song dynasty. The final settlement came under Genghis’s grandson Kublai Khan (reigned 1260–94).

The Yuan Dynasty was established in 1271 when the leader of the Mongol Empire, Kublai Khan (ca. 1215–ca. 1294) proclaimed the dynastic name “Great Yuan”, however, the conquest of China did not take place until 1279. It established a  Chinese-style administration set up with a controlled bureaucracy, political subdivisions, and a rationalized taxing system. Yuan was the first dynasty that moved its capital from Karakorum (now Mongolia) to Beijing (now China’s capital) in 1267. The Yuan restored the Grand Canal and expanded the infrastructure including roads and postal stations. The Yuan Dynasty was associated with new cultural achievements including the development of the novel as a genre of literature. During the time of the Yuan Dynasty, foreign trade and foreign intercourse were seen as more extensive than at any other time before the modern age

Establishing Government

The structure of the Yuan government was established during the period of ruler Kublai Khan (1260-1294). The bureaucratic system formed by Kublai Khan showed diverse cultures in the empire, such as the Khitans, Hans, Mongols, Jurchens, and Tibetan Buddhists. Though the government structure indicated by the institutions was almost purely the same as that of native Chinese dynasties, the Yuan bureaucracy consisted of a mixture of elements from several cultures. The Six Ministries, which had been established since the Tang Dynasty and Sui Dynasty, and the existence of the central government departments presented Yuan governance with a sinicized image.

Despite all the functioning of the ministries, the actual authority lies under Mongol control. The key administrative jobs in the newly established 12 partially autonomous provinces that Northern Korea and China (annexed in 1270 CE) were divided and mostly went to Mongols. The Jarquchi, a Mongol regional official, had been assigned to Chinese territory. They formed a local administration for each province along with people from the many Mongol clans. The Mongol police force, the Tutqaul, had been charged with keeping routes free of criminals. Among Western Asians, Muslims were particularly given jobs in the financial side of government, such as tax collectors and finance ministers.

A New Social Order

Kublai provided that Mongols always had a competitive edge in China by officially classifying them as superior in status to the Chinese. There were four official Yuan levels which were based on perceived adherence to the Yuan rulers; Mongols, Hanren (Tibetans, northern Chinese,  Jurchen  Khitans, and others), Semu (people from Central Asia), and Nanren (southern Chinese ruled by the Song).

Kublai, as belonging to one of the four classes mentioned above, has implications about an individual’s judicial treatment, tax status, and eligibility for government jobs. For example, Southern Chinese were obliged to pay tax based on the area of land they possessed, while Northern Chinese used to pay tax per household. Punishments indicated a highly noticeable distinction, such as if a Mongol was convicted in a murder case, he just had to pay some amount of money to get out of the punishment, while if the southern Chinese were found guilty of theft received a penalty and then marked and tattooed as criminals.

Other forms of segregation were also witnessed during the reign of Kublai Khan, including preventing Chinese from taking Mongol names and wearing Mongol clothing, additionally, they were prohibited from learning the Mongol language. Other than that, intermarriage was strongly discouraged. Kublai and his successors were primarily concerned with navigating their subjects, making it simple to identify who was who, and suppressing rebellions. Furthermore, the Chinese were prohibited from possessing weapons and carrying them in public. 

Foreign Policy and Trade

Kublai Khan was significantly intrigued by restoring the Chinese tribute system, which was neglected during the later part of the Song period. The system obliged states to pay ceremonial and monetary tribute to China’s great power supremacy as the geographical center of the globe which is known as the ‘Middle Kingdom’. The move might not only strengthen his position as Chinese emperor, but it would also result in valuable goods that would contribute to growing international trade. Kublai also launched a series of operations to return China’s neighbors to their historic position of servitude to the emperor.

Furthermore, Marco appears to have served Kublai Khan as a traversing reporter/ambassador between 1275 and 1292 CE in the most remote region of the Mongol Empire. When Marco traveled back home, he wrote about his journeys in his book “The Travels of Marco Polo,” which was first published around 1298 CE. His portrayals are among the best we have for the Yuan Dynasty. 

The Yuan promoted international trade, which was of greater practical benefit to the Mongols and Chinese than recognition worldwide. Exemptions from taxes and a higher status than before were offered to craft workers and artisans. Paper money was made available to be used by traders, currency transfers were more monitored, and the movement of products became easier with the construction of more canals and roads (such as the Grand Canal, which connects northern and southern China), and maritime vessels. More technologies and ideas were also exchanged as a result of trade; for example, China gained from Persian knowledge of maps, astronomy, luxury textile weaving, and irrigation.

Cultural Achievements

During the Tang (618-907) and Song (960-1279) dynasties, the state encouraged art. During the Yuan Dynasty, artists, especially native Chinese who were resistant to serving their foreign invaders, were compelled to look for ideas and creativity within themselves and their customs and traditions. The Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty— they were Wang Meng, Huang Gongwang, Wu Zhen, and Ni Zan—and other artists such as Zhao Mengfu established the idea of “literati painting” (wenrenhua), which promoted personal expression and erudition through art over elegant surfaces.

There was also an emphasis on stark and simple forms (such as rocks and bamboo) and calligraphy, which frequently coincided with lengthy writings on the paintings. In comparison with the local Chinese’s radical new placement in pictorial art, the Mongols supported a conservative resurgence of Buddhist art (sculpture and painting) as part of their strive to establish authority over the Chinese. Yuanqu, or “Yuan drama,” was a mixture of the regional music drama that had been split off during the Song dynasty and came together under Yuan’s authority. A variety of acrobatics and dances have been introduced to common forms of entertainment, and popular song genres have become more flexible than before. Vernacular fiction gained widespread popularity, and poetry laid a strong emphasis on sank, or “nondramatic songs.”

Vernacular dramatists composed four or five-act romantic suspense dramas featuring several songs in each act, with at least twelve renowned Sinicized Mongols among them. Large audiences were attracted to the new literary way of entertainment.

Decline of Yuan Dynasty

The collapse of the Yuan Dynasty started in the mid-14th century CE when it was hit by unusually cold winters, plague, famine, and Yellow River flooding. All this led to hyperinflation as the government printed too much paper money to resolve the damaged infrastructure. Then there were widespread uprisings and banditry by an overtaxed peasantry. Some local nobles and regional bureaucrats in southern China were collaborating with smugglers, bandits, and even religious leaders to take control of entire towns. Yuan China started destabilizing from within.

Further, The Yuan emperors failed to suppress many rebellions, including that of the Red Turban Movement, an offshoot of the Buddhist White Lotus Movement supervised by a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang (1328–1398 CE). The first significant coup of Zhu Yuanzhang was the conquest of Nanjing in 1356 CE. Zhu’s victories kept going, and he overcame his two main rival rebel leaders and their forces, Chen Youliang in the Battle of Poyang Lake (1363 CE) and Zhang Shicheng in 1367 CE. Zhu retained his position as the most powerful commander of China. 

However, after capturing Beijing, the last Yuan emperor of China, Toghon Temur (r. 1333-1368 CE), returned to Mongolia. The Yuan continued to rule over Mongolia under the new name of the Northern Yuan Dynasty (1368-1635 CE). In the end, the Ming Dynasty overthrew the Yuan forces in 1368.

Yuan Dynasty Emperors

Here is the list of emperors of the Yuan Dynasty;

• Kublai Khan (1260-1294)
• Temur Khan (1294-1307)
• Kulug Khan (1307-1311)
• Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan (1311-1320)
• Gegeen Khan (1320-1323)
• Yesun Temur (1323-1328)
• Ragibagh Khan (1328)
• Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temur (1328-1329) and (1329-1332)
• Khutughtu Khan Kusala (1329)
• Rinchinbal Khan (1332)
• Toghon Temur (1333-1368)

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Yuan Dynasty, established and ruled by Kublai Khan, marks a significant part of Chinese history, which blends the Mongol and Chinese cultural legacies. Despite remaining for a short period, the dynasty left a lasting impact through its enhancement in trade, administration, and cultural exchange. The Yuan period witnessed the flourishing international trade of goods and services and promoted global connections that flourished in both the East and the West. In 1368, the Ming Dynasty overthrew the Yuan Dynasty but the influences and innovations of this era continue to be noticeable and significant in China’s historical and cultural landscape, demonstrating the intricate relationship of conquest and cultural integration.

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